Freedgood 2006

Elaine Freedgood. The Ideas in Things: Fugitive Meaning in the Victorian Novel. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006.

General Notes

• how to connect the narrative unconscious and the textual unconscious? A McLeodian and Freedgoodian reading?
• wgat about anachronistic things like old books?

Chapter Notes

Intro

• 1: [Epigraph] The past is hidden somewhere outside the realm beyond the reach of intellect, in some material object...which we do not suspect. -- Proust, Du cote de chez Swann
• Even with the recent critical attention to the detail, the fetish, and material culture, the "things" of novels still do not get taken seriously - that is to say, they do not get interpreted - much of the time.
• Claim: The Ideas in Things assumes that critical cultural archives have been preserved, unsuspected, in the things of realism that have been so little or so lightly read.
• 3: [Weak metonymic reading vs strong] ...understanding the widest possible range of meanings for, let's say, the mahogany furniture in Jane Eyre requires that one learn about the history of the depletion of mahogany in Madeira and in the Caribbean (the two major sources of wealth in the novel)...and what those innovations signified, culturally speaking, in the Victorian period.
• This process does not tend toward a "reading" of the novel in any traditional sense. Instead it seeks what Pierre Macherey has described as a moment of "splitting" within the novel, the point at which we can catch sight of the "division which is its unconscious, in so far as it possesses one." This divided unconscious allows us to glimpse the "play of history beyond its edges, encroaching on those edges." This splitting, this less-than-fully-narrated appearance of history makes it possible "to trace the path which leads from the haunted work to that which haunts it."
  • cf. Randy McLeod about the "textual unconscious"
• 4: Conceptual method: ...I do eventually develop interpretive allegories in which I follow the narrative logic of the novel more closely than I do in the strong metonymic readings which I begin, but I delay such readings until I have the knowledge of the collector. [cf. Benjamin Arcades about allegorist/collector]
• In the nineteenth century, "what Barthes calls the 'world of goods' got used to itself" and things began "to demand visibility." [qting Cynthia Wall] The increasing respectability of increasingly detailed description makes for the emblematic hodgepodge of the Victorian novel.
• 5: ...it allows me to avoid the routinized literary figuration that precludes the interpretation of most of the things of realism.
• ...method of the first 3 chapters of this book: one in which the historically and theoretically overdetermined material characteristics of objects are sought out beyond the immediate [6] context in which they appear. These objects are then returned to their novelistic homes, so that they can inhabit them with a radiance or resonance of meaning they have not possessed or have not legitimately possessed in previous literary-critical reading.
• 6: I argue that George Eliot...begins to restrict and assign meaning to fictional objects
• ...structures of meaning-making build up in such hermeneutic displays [as the plain dress in Middlemarch]: this is the readerly text in the process of becoming a writerly one, that is to say, this is a text that teaches readers how to rightly "write" that which is unwritten in literary language....In my account of it, the readerly text is a structure in which a reader can be writerly with objects.
• 7: ...where desire emerges and dives to its death, repeatedly - fortunately enough for nineteenth-century publishing [what to make of this?].
  • how to connect the narrative unconscious and the textual unconscious?
• Reliability and reproducibility in literary meaning making require the stability of metaphors rather than the unpredictability of metonyms.
• ...I will argue that mid-Victorians, and the objects in their novels, were not fully in the grip of the kind of fetishism Marx and Marxists have ascribed to industrial culture.
• 8: A host of ideas resided in Victorian things: abstraction, alienation, and spectacularization had to compete for space with other kinds of object relations - ones that we have perhaps yet to appreciate.
• [Definition:] Victorian thing culture: a more extravagant form of object relations than ours, one in which systems of value were not quarantined from one another and ideas of interest and meaning were perhaps far less restricted than they are for us.
• thing culture vs. the reality effect: In his pervasively influential definition of the "reality effect," Roland Barthes argues that many objects lie around in the realist novel to signify a generic real rather than to suggest something particular about it. He suggests that we must understand the significance of "insignificant notation" (which can be determined only in the context of the entire work) as forming the "referential illusion" of modern realism.
• 10: In literary criticism, with a few notable exceptions on which this work depends, even the use value of most novelistic objects has largely been an abstraction: things are reified as markers of a real in which they can participate only generically. As exchange values, they are indentured to a metaphorical relation in which they must give up most of their own qualities in the service of a symbolic relation. They must do the "metaphysical capering" Marx ascribed to the commodity fetish - in the service of producing the effect of reality, or in service to a meaning that belongs to something or, more precisely, someone else. The object as reality effect loses its potential as a material thing outside the conventions of representation; the object as metaphor loses most of its qualities in its symbolic servitude.
• 11: Roman Jakobson noted that literary critics, like some aphasics, suffer from a disorder in which the "actual bipolarity [of poetical tropes] has been artificially replaced...by an amputated unipolar scheme which, strikingly enough, coincides with one of the two aphasic patterns, namely with the contiguity disorder."
  • metaphor <----- - - - - - > metonymy
• The problem with the kind of typically constricted reading Barthes rightly dismisses is precisely that it does not allow for causal, material, and conceptual connections beyond the covers of the text, or outside the frame of the narrative -- such are the basic rules of literary reading. But a literal approach to literary reading -- an approach that breaches, temporarily, the narrative frame and the symbolic system of the novel -- would assume that the barometer [in Flaubert's A Simple Heart ex. from Barthes] might be an index of something culturally significant both within the novel and outside it, especially given that the barometer does literally provide an index.
• 12: IN the metonymic readings I perform in the first three chapters of this book, the object is investigated in terms of its own properties and history and then refigured alongside and athwart the novel's manifest or dominant narrative -- the one that concerns its subjects.
• 13: Metonymy tends to be read according to habit - that is, according to a frame of reference that goes beyond or lies outside the symbolic structures of the novel - and its meanings are therefor often sought or recuperated in the social structures outside the novel, but inside the social world in which it is read. So the seemingly mundane issue of habit is actually fraught with contingency: whose habits? When and where?
• 14: Metonymy is the figure of arrested development, "thick description," the readable, the readerly. It embarrasses interpretation because of its apparent contingency, its seeming inability to provide a unitary or singular meaning, or a kind of critical "truth" (or the appearance thereof). It is the nightmarish opposite of the interpretive dead end: an interpretive open end of dizzying potential, metonymy has understandably been read, when read at all, weakly.
• 16: The contingency of metonymic relations may more proerly rest, in many cases, on our ability and our willingness to recuperate historical necessity. Metonymy's apparently subversive ability to disrupt meaning, to be endlessly vagrant and open ended, may be attended by an equally subversive ability to recuperate historical links that are anything but random.
• 17: A strong, literalizing metonymy can "start" fictional objects into historical life and historicize our fictions against the grain of the kinds of allegorical meaning we already know how to find, read, and create.
• 20: Unlike fetishism, literalism has received no official rehabilitation. But I would venture to argue that many major critical paradigm shifts of the last thirty years have depended on broaching the literal, or on taking something literally that was traditionally taken figurally, if it was "taken" at all.
  • Poovey - governessing
  • Sedgwick - anal eroticism in Our Mutual Friend (Fanny Cleaver)
  • Said - Mansfield Park and sugar and slavery
• Literal women as opposed to female figures, literal slaves as opposed to metaphorical bondsmen - each of these interpretations violates the decorous reading practices [of "humanist and New Critic[al] readings"] that have [21] often rendered the study of literature (and philosophy) a form of moral and political hygiene.
• 21: We "follow" novelistic things out of novels; we wander along the contiguous connections that are available to us given the states of our knowledge, our unconsciouses, our memories, the archives that remain and that remain available and valuable to us. We then bracket most of these connections, if we have had even a year or two of literary study at the secondary school level, as illegitimate: many of these constitute the "irrelevant associations and stock responses" that I.A. Richards attempted to "reorganize" with the procedures of Practical Criticism, and that criticism in general has continued to try to rein in, sort, and hierarchize.
• 22: [Somewhat eccentric intellectual genealogy, but it makes sense if you think about Marx/Engels reading Vico's Principles of a New Science and/or Michelet [cf. Wilson 1940 To the Finland Station ]] Giambattista Vico's work on the material basis of language describes how cultural knowledge may be stored outside individual minds and thus beyond the boundaries of memory or the unconscious as they are usually conceived. Robert Pogue Harrison adumbrates this "storage" process: "...OUr institutions, laws, landscapes, cities, statues, scriptures, houses, books, ideologies -- these are among the many places in its secular typography where the human mind stores both the past and future of what it retains." To follow in a Viconian manner the emanings of blue and white checked curtains in and around Mary Barton (a novel about MAnchester cotton mill workers), for example, may require that we place these curtains in the context of certain institutions, cities, and landscapes and that we try to find out about their origin, their production, and their use in various houses, books, and ideologies. To do so would allow us to find out what they may once have meant and what they can now mean inside and outside various moments of memory: the sources of knowledge about calico that were available in C19 Britain and the sources that are available now can be at least partially cataloged.
• 23: Cultural knowledge is stored in a variety of institutional forms; importantly for my argument, it is also stored at the level of the word. Vico's theory of cultural knowledge is grounded in language, and his idea of language is grounded in material practices[.]
• What did Victorian readers - who were reading in the periodical press about the "extinction" of indigenous peoples throughout the British Empire - make of the Negro head tobacco that Magwitch smokes when he returns from Australia to see the gentleman he has made of Pip? [Great Expectations]
• 24 antiquarian Walter Johnson - Folk Memory (1908) - look up. Not in ONDB or Wiki.
  • how did she come on this?
• 25: In Vico's theory of language, the first form of writing for Christians, as for the Egyptians and Chinese, was hieroglyphics. The words and tropes that developed from pictographic symbols are always rooted in the material practices that generated them, even if those practices are forgotten. In Marx's theory of exchange, the commodity fetish is a social hieroglyphic...[26] What knowledge can the specifically "social" hieroglyphic retain? Value is secreted in commodities, filling them with meanings that are both literal and figurative. We might say that the commodity is both a material object and a trope: it is literal as a lion is a lion, and figurative as a cubit stands for justice. The commodity stands for something that is and is not immediately clear to its beholders, but the extraordinary thing is that we have imagined commodities such that they are somehow capable of letting us know we have turned them into figures: we need to literalize them in order to re-figure them, that is we need to re-materialize them in order to understand their value differently, less abstractly.
• 28: The things of realism have been fetishized by an emphasis on metaphorical reading: the kind that tends to slight the literal, material qualities of things, and the large, historically enriched figural possibilities these qualities might eventually generate, in favor of their immediate, contextual, conventional figural possibilities. And although this kind of very basic literary reading has of course been supplanted many times over by waves of critical and theoretical change, it has remained largely stuck in place when it comes to the realist object. The Ideas in Things tries to subvert or upend the literary reading - and not reading - of the things of realism.
• 29: As yet unseen connections between historical knowledge and fictional form are recorded in the letter and letters of novelistic things: things that are at once material and figural, fetishized and fugitive, here and gone.

Ch. 1: Souvenirs of Sadism: Mahogany Furniture, Deforestation, and Slavery in Jane Eyre

• 31: Jane Eyre has been widely discussed as a text of empire; it has less often been commented on a s a work about interior decoration.
• mahogany and deal [planks of pine or fir] are two of the great class markers in Victorian fiction
• 32: she thus creates for herself [by recreating the red room at Gateshead in Moor House] a souvenir of the sadism she endured at the hands of her cousins and her Aunt Reed at Gateshead; she makes it her own. Jane also buys souvenirs of what might be described as another form of sadism: the deforestation, colonization, and implementation of plantation slavery in the two critical sources of wealth in the novel, Madeira and the Caribbean.
• 33: Like the fictitious but still convincing "blank" spaces on the map of empire, the idea of empty space invites the exercise of habitation as a demonstration of power [cites Lefebvre Everyday Space]. The disposition of things in space is also a way of externalizing an internal arrangement of objects and of enacting, however unconsciously, a strict control over them.
• 35: The world of Jane Eyre is decorated with the literal and figural proceeds of Atlantic trade in these two crucial locations. Both places were deforested of mahogany and planted with the cash crops that allow Jane Eyre to to furnish her world with souvenirs, in the form of mahogany furniture, of the original material source of her wealth. I'm going to argue in this chapter that Jane's purchase and placement of mahogany furniture symbolizes, naturalizes, domesticates, and internalizes the violent histories of deforestation, slavery, and the ecologically and socially devastating cultivation of cash crops in Madeira and Jamaica.
• Charlotte Sussman has argued that colonial products like tea and sugar made consumers [in the C18] anxious because they threatened to bring home the violence that attended their production. This anxiety suggests the ways in which acts of consumption were regarded as moral choices at a moment that seems to be prior to the development of the consciousness Marx called commodity fetishism.
• 36: The ability to read fables of gender into the nineteenth-century novel, or to historicize the stories of poor governesses and creole madwomen, has revolutionized the criticism of the novel, and without it, the reading I do here would be impossible. But the intransigently allegorical mode of criticism blocks the reading of the material properties and relations of objects that don't give us immediate clues that will help us construct but we have come to understand as literary, rather than literal, meaning. For "the allegorist," Benjamin reminds us, "objects represent only keywords in a secret dictionary." In the secret dictionary of novel criticism, -- the dictionary about which initiates must prove their knowledge -- objects are weak metonyms for the subjects they adorn or generic markers of the real they indicate.... My project here is to imagine, like Benjamin's collector, that "the world is present, and indeed ordered" in certain objects. That ordering is not an allegory, but a history. And it is not the history that the novel narrates, but the history that the novel secretes: the history it hides and emits, the one it conceals and produces as it calls to mind the locations of deforestation and slavery for which mahogany is a metaphor, a metonym, and a literal representation.
• 37: Deforestation had already become a serious problem in England by the sixteenth century.... Jane Eyre remembers the deforestation of England: Jame comes to understand, as a child reading Gulliver's Travels, that there are no elves left in England, because they have all gone "to some savage country where the woods were wilder and thicker"[.]
• 38: Commoners, the historian JM Neeson tells us, were the last of the English peasantry; enclosure made them into a working class.
• Part of the making of the modern individual, a process to which Jane Eyre the novel and Jane Eyre the character made, and continue to make, a powerful contribution, is this kind of competitive individuation: one girl, one plot of land, one set of results accruing to each owner. [39] In this school and in its garden, Jane learns how to perform another kind of enclosure, the enclosure of the self.
• 44: JM Keynes described free trade as the "most fervent expression of laissez faire," and we might imagine that, as such, it forms the global analogue for the nineteenth-century fantasy of an intensely self-determining individualism - a fantasy that arises, as Marx notes in the Grundrisse, at the moment of the "most developed social relations." Gayatri Spivak has famously argued that in Jane Eyre, "[w]hat is at stake, for feminist individualism in the age of imperialism is precisely the making of human beings, the construction and 'interpellation' of the subject not as an individual, but as 'individualist.' In this highly compressed formulation, Spivak links feminism, liberal individualism, and imperialism, and suggests that the master narrative is imperialism.
• ...Although socially, legally, politically, and economically women were not recognizably individuals throughout most [of] the nineteenth century, they were still free to subscribe to the ideology of individualism and therefore could be individualists. They could be individualists without being able to be individuals themselves; they could aspire -- like the poor, the colonized, the racially, ethnically or religiously disenfranchised - to a condition they could not attain.
• 45: In Freud's account, aggressive impulses are initially directed at objects outside the self; only then are these impulses turned inward, against the self. But in the imperial narrative of sadism, the narrative that forms the structure of Jane Eyre as a bildungsroman, and that suggests a template for female individualism, masochism comes at the beginning of the story. In this narrative, the psychoanalytic progression of sadism to masochism is reversed, destructive impulses are usefully remembered as originating in a relationship with the self, and, in a movement we think of as characteristic of empire, such impulses are then directed outward, in an ever-expanding scope, to objects outside the self.
• There is much evidence to suggest that nationalism comes after empire, in the same way that the word (and to some extent the concept) "heterosexuality" postdates the word "homosexuality."... It was not until the nineteenth century that a national identity took shape in a form we now recognize, and some historians have argued that what we regard as a nearly antediluvian "Englishness" is largely a late nineteenth century invention.
• 46: One of the lessons of Jane Eyre, and one of the reasons it is something of an owner's manual for the modern self, is that it imagines subjective interiority in terms of space: spaces that can be enclosed. Like the modern nation-state, the self has borders beyond which it will no longer be itself. But if the modern self follows the logic and ideology of enclosure in this novel, it also follows the logic and ideology of free trade. The bounds of the self must be strong and yet permeable, able to open up to exchange with others; subjectivity thrives when it can get from others that which it cannot produce for itself.
• 48: When Rochester asks Jane to give up what he calls her "governessing slavery" once they decide to get married, Jane insists on continuing it. In this exchange, Jane Eyre and Jane Eyre do a quintessentially Victorian ideological thing: the novel and its narrator-heroine begin to make an actual historical problem into a part of a newly constructed unchanging human condition [cites Gallagher Industrialization].
• 50: Victorian novels would seem to proffer a limited set of narrative possibilities, tricked out, to borrow Bronte's phrase, in an infinite wardrobe of significant and insignificant detail. Our endless task is to undo what Susan Stewart has called "the hierarchy of detail," the structure that generates various ideologies of the real, invisibly and insidiously: "realistic genres do not mirror everyday life," she writes, "they mirror its hierarchization of information. They are mimetic in the stance they take toward this organization and hence are mimetic of values, not of the material world."
• 51: I am trying to make the furniture of Jane Eyre into what Marx would call a "social hieroglyphic": to treat it as a complex and partly legible sign, to help us get "behind the secret of our own social products." The fact that furniture is not generally interpreted in all its woody splendor means it can do lots of unapprehended symbolic work in the novel. An apparently innocent object like a mahogany dresser or a walnut panel decorates the moral and moralized space of the novel's winners, while sneaking in the true extent of their morally precarious triumph and evoking useful and self-protective memories of imperial mastery.
• Because we contemporary readers of Victorian fiction have lost many of the possible meanings of the things of those bulky, item-ful novels, what might be called the social destruction of meaning in the novel has unwittingly been abetted by practices of reading that ignore the literal or material qualities of objects, the very qualities that might take us back in time to the meanings and resonances these objects may have had for earlier [52] readers. What we take as our interpretive and theoretical canniness becomes a kind of disability: the long standing, and largely unnoticed, degradation of metonymy has moved "things" further and further away from the possibility of meaning anything.
• 53: The social relations of these people [working people], the nameless inhabitants of the Caribbean who do not find subjecthood in the Victorian novel or in histories of the "first world," are recovered through reading the properties and relations of objects like mahogany furniture.
• The explicit subjects of fiction are not the only subjects of fiction. The idea of reification as we have long understood it ought to have indicated this to us before now: social relations hide in things.

Ch. 3: Realism, Fetishism, and Genocide: Negro Head Tobacco in and around Great Expectations

• 81: [epigraph] Artworks are like picture puzzles in that what they hide...is visible and is, by being visible, hidden. - Adorno, Aesthetic Theory
• 83-4: The fragile linguistic marker of Negro head tobacco forms a very particular kind of memorial: it suggests a fetishistic form of remembering. I want to propose that the presence of Negro head [84] tobacco symbolizes the crime of Aboriginal genocide without requiring conscious acknowledgement of it, and therefore without forcing the reader to deny, repress, or oppose the fact of genocide. In Derrida's description, "the economy of the fetish is more powerful than that of truth [because]...the fetish is not opposable. It oscillates like the clapper of a truth that rings awry." The fetish communicates its meaning awry, so that it need not be consciously understood. Fetishistic representations are culturally and psychologically economical: they do not demand the massive efforts required by repression precisely because they allow for what Freud describes as a "to and fro" relationship with reality, a constant and nearly imperceptible movement "between disavowal and acknowledgement." In this chapter, I will follow these oscillations in the form of the disavowed history of Australia that Great Expectations secretes - in both senses of the word.
• 84: The things of realism - the exuberant itemization with which it is so routinely identified - constitute a kind of unsupervised metonymic archive: a nearly infinite catalogue of compressed references to social facts that have, in the history of novel reading, remained largely unread.
• 85: Brantlinger - the "proleptic elegy" for aboriginal cultures which are in the process of disappearing, which Freedgood tracks in contemporary periodical accounts of Australian genocide
• 87: Articles [like those about genocide] were regularly bound together in book form, and it is work remarking that at least one such volume crossed the desk of Charles Dickens: LA Chamerovzow, the secretary of the Society for the Protection of Aborigines, sent D a volume of collected writings in 1850, along with his own book...Dickens thanked him for the two volumes by letter.
  • Studies of this practice?
• 90: The objections raised against colonial violence in the periodical press, in memoirs, and in government documents suggest that the portrait drawn by Edward Said in Culture and Imperialism in 1993 needs to be supplemented by an account of the less celebrated writing from the same period.
• There is virtiually no elaboration of what was going on "out there" in the colonies that might be affecting, or more accurately underwriting, the domestic worlds of novels like Jane Eyre, Dombey and Son, or Vanity Fair.... Britons who stayed home are routinely represented in novels about them as rigidly taciturn or blithely unknowing when it comes to empire. Given the mass detailing of imperial and colonial issues in the periodical press...the novel's suppression or elision of such discussion suggests the ways in which realism can homogenize the chaotic multiplicity of a given episteme, rendering it smooth, intelligible, consistent - in short, rendering it what we have come [91] to think of, in representation and in experience, as realistic.
• 91: Great Expectations exemplifies a process in which some widely discussed aspect of the imperial project - in this case the destruction of Aboriginal peoples as a result of banishing British convicts to their land - is encrypted in a highly desirable object, a fetish that allows for covert but efficacious symbolization. In the case of Negro head tobacco, the possible meanings of the fetish linger dangerously close to the surface; paradoxically, this closeness to historical actuality is what makes the fetish an effective, safe, and economical representation. It can hide in plain sight, too "real" to require interpretation.
• 93: Negro head tobacco - in its circulation in Great Expectations and in C19 Australia - exemplifies the symbolic efficacy of an impure commodity fetish. In the third volume of Capital, Marx describes interest-bearing capital (i.e., money that makes money from itself) as the "pure fetish form," because the "result of the capitalist production process...obtains an autonomous existence." The pure fetish represents both a moment of exquisite unfetteredness from social and political actuality and an economic entity disconnected from symbolic labor - precisely because of its double abstraction. The efficacy of the impure commodity fetish is that it does so much more than circulate as itself and as an exchange value; it circulates itself, it circulates capital [94] (or causes capital to circulate), and it circulates what seems to have become a soothing symbolics - in this case, of racial subjection.
• 95: ...In Great Expectations slavery is neither distant nor exotic; it is used as a metaphor for thoroughly British relations, and it is very nearly interchangeable with imprisonment and transportation.... There seems to be nowhere to turn for liberation in the world of Great Expectations: apparent freedom becomes another form of enslavement; we learn from Magwitch that even when he was nominally free, he felt like he was the "black slave" of his collaborator Compeyson.... The criminal justice system - a system that seems like an extension of Mrs. Joe's harsh model of domesticity.
• 99: Pip asks Wemmick if one of the casts [of hanged criminals in Jaggers's office] is "like" its original. Wemmick answers, "Like him? It's himself you know." The representation is the lost thing it represents. The novel might be seen as an analogous form of representation: as an institution, it could be imagined as performing a massive cultural reclamation project, revivifying lost objects and lost persons without discrimination, bringing back both the mounred and the unmournable in a potentially disturbing mix. Gallagher describes this problem as an overpopulation, in the novel, of the "undead": "As Magwitch puts it," she writes, "There's o'er much coming back in this novel." This movement between life and death "allows an incessant play of the imagination across the [100] life-death divide." This play of the imagination suggests the extent to which certain novels allow us a "free zone" in which we can reimagine our object relations without any constraining reference to reality.
  • Read against Kornbluh 2015 - unmooring objects from mimesis through imaginative play
• 101: Fetishism finds in realism (a genre that attempts to circumvent lack with an abandoned abundance) a particularly comfortable home because of the predominance of things, of details, of qualities - in short, of metonymy - in its figural ground.
• 103: But the gore of Smithfield can be recuperated: it is latent in the word - in the metonym and its contingent, contiguous associations - as long as cultural memory and historical records preserve its earlier associations. Part of the value of "reading" novelistic things according to the strong metonymic method I propose in this book - and of having the habit of such reading - is precisely to recuperate and thereby maintain such latent meanings. The C19 novel, especially in its midcentury form, when it is full of things that are not well organized symbolically speaking, is a rich field in which to undo smoe of the social destruction of meaning that our neglect of reading things has unwittingly produced.
• ...it is as if the Dickens novel represented an attempt to create a text that in its intense plenitude could not become the least bit writerly even in the hands of the most unruly reader.
• 104: "metonymic sublime" in Dickens, ...the novel in this version of it does not represent experience; it is itself an experience of plenitude that cannot be found in the desert of the real.
• 107: I am arguing that although repression is certainly a critical function of realist fiction (an dprobably of every other kind of representation), realism also has at its disposal, and indeed must have at its disposal, the more economical form of fetishistic metonymy I am elaborating here. ... because [commodities] can circulate as things, the bad news of history can risk representation, since it will probably be left undecoded. The need for repression is bypassed by the ability of metonymic material to lie low on the horizon of legitimate styles of novel reading.